II. Major Doctrinal Divisions within Islam

Sunni Theology

1) Ash’ari and Maturidi Schools: Sunni Orthodoxy

These two schools of doctrine are followed by the bulk of Sunni Muslims and differ only in minor details

Ash’ari School: This school is named after the followers of the 9th century scholar Abu al Hasan al Ash’ari (874-936 CE) and is widely accepted throughout the Sunni Muslim world. They believe that the characteristics of God are ultimately beyond human comprehension, and trust in the Revelation is essential, although the use of rationality is important.

Maturidi School: This school is named after the followers of the 9th century scholar Muhammad Abu Mansur al Maturidi (853-944 CE) and has a wide following in regions where Hanafi law is practiced. They have a slightly more pronounced reliance on human reason.

2) Salafi School

This school was developed around the doctrines of 18th century scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703-1792 CE). Salafis have specific doctrinal beliefs, owing to their particular interpretation of Islam, that differentiate them from the majority of Sunnis, such as a literal anthropomorphic interpretation of God. Salafis place a great emphasis on literal interpretation of the Qur’an and Hadith, with skepticism towards the role of human reason in theology.

3) Mu’tazili School

This school was developed between the 8th and 10th centuries. Although it is traced back to Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748 CE) in Basra, theologians Abu al Hudhayl al ‘Allaf (d. 849 CE) and Bishr ibn al Mu’tamir (d. 825 CE) are credited with formalizing its theological stance. Mu’tazili thought relies heavily on logic, including Greek philosophy. Although it no longer has a significant following, a small minority of contemporary intellectuals have sought to revive it. Mutazilites believe that the Qur’an was created as opposed to the Orthodox Sunni view that it is eternal and uncreated. Moreover they advocate using rationalism to understand allegorical readings of the Qur’an.

Shi‘a Theology

1) The Twelver School

The infallibility (‘Ismah) of the Twelve Imams descended from the family of the Prophet (Ahl al Bayt) who are believed to be the spiritual and rightful political authorities of the Muslim community (Umma). The twelfth Imam, the Mahdi, is believed to be in occultation to return in the future.

2) Isma’ili School

The Qur’an and Hadith are said to have truths lying with a single living Imam, descended directly from the Prophet. Also known as ‘seveners’ for their belief that Isma’il ibn Ja’far was the seventh and final leading-Imam of the Muslim community.

3) Zaidi School

The infallibility of the Twelve Imams and the notion of occultation are rejected in favor of accepting the leadership of a living Imam. The Imamate can be held by any descendant of the Prophet (Sayyid). Also known as ‘fivers’ for their belief that Zayd ibn Ali was the fifth and final leading-Imam of the Muslim community.

Ibadi Theology

Ibadi School

Ibadis believe that God created the Qur’an at a certain point in time, and that God will not be seen on the Day of Judgment. They also believe in the eternal nature of hell for all those who enter it.

III. Ideological Divisions

Traditional Islam

(96% of the world’s Muslims)

Also known as Orthodox Islam, this ideology is not politicized and largely based on consensus of correct opinion–thus including the Sunni, Shi‘a, and Ibadi branches of practice (and their subgroups) within the fold of Islam, and not groups such as the Druze or the Ahmadiyya, among others.

Islamic Modernism

(1% of the world’s Muslims)

Emerging from 19th century Ottoman Turkey and Egypt, this subdivision contextualized Islamic ideology for the times–emphasizing the need for religion to evolve with Western advances.

Islamic Fundamentalism

(3% of the world’s Muslims)

This is a highly politicized religious ideology popularized in the 20th century through movements within both the Shi‘a and Sunni branches of Islam–characterized by aggressiveness and a reformist attitude toward traditional Islam.

IIIa. Traditional Islam

Sunni

(90% of the world’s traditional muslims)

The largest denomination of Muslims referred to as Ahl as Sunnah wa’l Jama’h or ‘people of the prophetic tradition and community’–with emphasis on emulating the life of the last Prophet, Muhammad ﷺ.

Schools of Sunni Islamic Law

Hanafi

(45.5%)

Named after the followers of Imam Abu Hanifa (699-767 CE/ 89-157 AH) in Iraq.

Shafi’i

(28%)

Named after the followers of Imam al Shafi’i (767-820 CE/ 150-204 AH) in Medina.

Maliki

(15%)

Named after the followers of Imam Malik (711-795 CE/ 93-179 AH) in Medina.

Hanbali

(2%)

Named after the followers of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal (780 -855 CE/ 164-241 AH) in Iraq.

Shi‘a

(9.5% of the world’s traditional Muslims)

The second-largest denomination of Muslims referred to as Shi‘atu ‘Ali or ‘the party of Ali,’ the fourth caliph of Islam and first Imam in Shi’ism.

BRANCHES OF SHIA ISLAM

Zaidis (Fivers)

(Less than 1%)

Named after the followers of Imam Zaid ibn ‘Ali (695-740 CE) in Medina.

Twelvers

(8%)

Named after the followers of Imam Ja’far al Sadiq (702-765 CE/ 83-148 AH) in Medina.

Isma’ilis (Seveners)

(Less than 0.5%)

Named after the followers of Muhammad ibn Ismail (746-809 CE/128-193 AH) in Medina.

SCHOOLS OF ISLAMIC LAW FOR TWELVER SHIA

Usuli

99% of Twelvers. This dominant school favors the use of ijtihad, independent legal reasoning, with an emphasis on four accepted collections of Hadith. Derive legal opinions from living ayatollahs, or mujtahids, whose rulings become obligatory. Taqlid, the practice of following rulings without questioning the religious authority, is a core tenet of this school. The name Usuli is derived from the Arabic term usul meaning ‘principle’.

Akhbari

Akhbaris reject the use of ijtihad or reasoning, and do not follow marjas who practice ijtihad. They also prohibit exegesis of the Qur’an. Derive legal rulings from the Qur’an, Hadith, and consensus. The name Akhbari is derived from the Arabic term akhbar meaning ‘traditions’. They can trace their roots to the followers of Muhammad Amin Astarabadi (d. 1627 CE). Akhbaris continue to exist to this day, although in small, concentrated pockets, particularly around Basra, Iraq.

Ibadi

(0.5% of the world’s traditional Muslims)

The Ibadi school has origins in and is linked to the Kharijites, but the modern day community is distinct from the 7th century Islamic sect. It was founded after the death of Prophet Muhammad and is currently practiced by a majority of Oman’s Muslim population. Also found across parts of Africa.

Mystic Brotherhoods

Although reliable statistics are not available for the millions of Muslims who practice Islamic mysticism, it has been estimated that 25% of adult Sunni Muslims in 1900 CE participated in these brotherhoods as either murids (followers of the Sufi guide of a particular order) or mutabarrikin (supporters or affiliates of a particular Sufi order).

Sunni Orders

Naqshbandiyya

Founded by Baha al Din Naqshband (d. 1389 CE) in Bukhara, modern day Uzbekistan. Influence: popular from China to North Africa, Europe and America.

Qadiriyya

Founded by scholar and saint ‘Abd al Qadir al Jilani (1077-1166 CE) in Baghdad, Iraq. Influence: stretches from Morocco to Malaysia, from Central Asia to South Africa.

Tijaniyya

Ahmad al Tijani (d. 1815 CE) who settled and taught in Fez, Morocco. Influence: major spiritual and religious role in Senegal, Nigeria, Mauritania and much of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Shadhiliyya

Founded by the Moroccan saint Abu’l-Hassan al Shadili (d. 1258 CE). Influence: most influential in North Africa and Egypt.

Kubrawiyya

(d. 1221 CE) from Khawarzm, modern day Uzbekistan. Influence: mostly present across Central Asia.

Suhrawardiyya

Founded by Persian scholar Abu Najib Suhrawardi (d. 1168 CE) in Iraq. Influence: a strong presence in India.

Chishtiyya

Founded by the Persian saint Mu’in al Din Chishti (d. 1236 CE) Khurasan. Influence: highly influential in India.

Mawlawiyya

A Turkish order founded by the Persian saint and poet Jalal al Din Rumi (d. 1273 CE). Influence: mainly in Turkey.

Rifa’iyya

Founded by Ahmad ibn ‘Ali al Rifa’i (d. 1182 CE) in southern Iraq. Influence: widely practiced across the Muslim world with a strong presence in Egypt.

Yashrutiyya

Founded by ‘Ali Nur al Din al Yashruti (d. 1892 CE) in Palestine. Influence: strong presence in Syria and Lebanon.

Badawiyya

An Egyptian order founded by the Moroccan saint Ahmad al Badawi (d. 1276 CE), considered by many as the patron saint of Egypt. Influence: active role in Egypt and the Sudan.

Khalwatiyya

A Turkish order founded by the Persian saint ‘Umar al Khalwati (d. 1397 CE). Influence: wide presence in the Balkans, Syria, Lebanon and North Africa.

Shi‘a Orders

Irfan

Irfan, which means ‘knowing’ in Arabic and ‘most beautiful and knowledgeable person’ in Pashto, is Shi‘a mysticism. Mulla Sadr al Din Muhammad Shirazi (1571-1636 CE) from Iran is considered a leading Shia theorist of Irfan.

IIIb. Islamic Fundamentalism

Sunni

Muslim Brotherhood

The Muslim Brotherhood, or Al Ikhwan Al Muslimeen is a transnational Sunni movement, with no particular ideological adherence. It is the largest political opposition organization in many Arab states, particularly in Egypt where it was founded in opposition to colonial rule by Hassan al Banna in 1928. Al Banna originally sought to revive Muslim culture from its position of exploitation under colonial rule, through charitable and educational work, to bring Islam into a central role in people’s life. Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966 CE) was also a leading member of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood in the 50s and 60s.

Wahhabism/Salafism

Wahhabism/Salafism are terms used interchangeably to refer to a particular brand of Islam. Salaf, meaning predecessors, refers to the very early practice of Islam by Muhammad and his immediate successors. Salafism seeks to revive the practice of Islam as it was at the time of Muhammad and can be critical of too much emphasis being placed on thinkers from after this period. Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al Wahhab (1703-1792 CE) was an important figure in the resurrection of this ideology therefore Salafism is often simply known as Wahhabism.

Shi‘a

Revolutionary Shi’ism

Revolutionary Shi’ism is an ideology, based on the teachings of the late Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1902-1989 CE), which shares many similarities with Marxist revolutionary thought. Khomeini believed that the only way to secure independence from colonial or imperial forces was through the creation of a Shi‘a state, under the idea of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Jurist). This means that all politics is subject to the opinion of the Supreme Leader who is responsible for the continued success of the revolution. It is only practiced in Iran.

IIIc. Islamic Modernism

Islamic modernism is a reform movement started by politically-minded urbanites with scant knowledge of traditional Islam. These people had witnessed and studied Western technology and socio-political ideas, and realized that the Islamic world was being left behind technologically by the West and had become too weak to stand up to it. They blamed this weakness on what they saw as ‘traditional Islam,’ which they thought held them back and was not ‘progressive’ enough. They thus called for a complete overhaul of Islam, including–or rather in particular–Islamic law (sharia) and doctrine (aqida). Islamic modernism remains popularly an object of derision and ridicule, and is scorned by traditional Muslims and fundamentalists alike.

On the authority of Al-Numan bin Basheer, who said : I heared the messenger of Allah ﷺ say :

“That which is lawful is plain and that which is unlawful is plain and between the two of them are doubtful matters about which not many people know. Thus he who avoids doubtful matters clears himself in regard to his religion and his honor, but he who falls into doubtful matters falls into that which is unlawful, like the shepherd who pastures around a sanctuary, all but grazing therein. Truly every king has a sanctuary, and truly Allah’s sanctuary is His prohibitions. Truly in the body there is a morsel of flesh which, if it be whole, all the body is whole and which, if it be diseased, all of it is diseased. Truly it is the heart.” Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim

© FreeIslamicCalligraphy. com

Source : Extrait de « The house of islam », dans The Muslim 500: The World's 500 Most Influential Muslims, 2025, p.64-70